Upward comparison means that people look at other more advantaged members of the group with the aim of evaluating their rewards (Wills, 1981). Cognitive Dissonance Theory explains the behaviour of people when they experience stress induced by contradictory cognitions and the motivation of people to reduce stress by passive or proactive measures (Festinger, 1962). The utilisation of Cognitive Dissonance Theory contributed to the understanding of the emotional and behavioural consequences of relations evaluating costs and benefits. These three theories formed the theoretical underpinning of Equity Theory, making it possible to explain the nature of relations between people, the mechanisms underpinning the cognitive evaluation of the outcomes of relations, and people’s reaction to such outcomes of relations. A review of cognitive dissonance theory at the organisation level was also conducted to integrate the relevant knowledge that was published from 2000 to 2016 (Hinojosa et al., 2017).
Justifying behavior
It was found that the evaluation of perceived fairness by employees of different groups in one division in an organisation made it possible to conclude that the rewards were not considered to be fair if input was higher compared to that of other colleagues (Adams, 1963). The literature on social comparison distinguishes two popular comparison approaches, which are downward comparison and upward comparison. Downward comparison means that people look at more disadvantaged members of the group to evaluate their own input and output.
Altering One’s Own Inputs
This justification process prevents the acknowledgment of harm and the necessary change in behavior. Although many studies have focused on a single dissonance reduction strategy (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959; Aronson & Mills, 1959; Brehm, 1956), it is important to note that people may simultaneously adopt multiple strategies to counter the dissonance. https://ecosoberhouse.com/ For example, a recent study (Mahapatra & Mishra, 2021) showed that customers who faced post-consumption cognitive dissonance took multiple actions to negate the experienced psychological discomfort. They sought support from like-minded people and mentally disconnected from the negative situation to reduce the negative emotions.
Model of Motivation: ARCS Instructional Design
Second, the evaluation of equity results from the assessment of personal inputs/outputs against inputs/outputs of other people in the social exchange relations (Figure 1). Equity is perceived when the ratio of input/output is equal to the input/output of other people. Individuals cognitive dissonance and addiction either refer to a specified referent person or a generalised other to draw the comparison. The specified person can even be oneself, which means that the person refers to their own experience in the past in terms of the rewards received for their contributions.
- Likewise, jealousy, greed or envy are labeled as negative, and members are taught to suppress and deny them.
- It provides an introduction to the theory and covers the topics of cognitive dissonance following decisions, the effects of forced compliance, the impacts of voluntary and involuntary exposure to information, and the role of social support.
- On the other hand, Izuma reported extensive bilateral DLPFC activations, but anterior insula activation was found only after lowering the statistical threshold.
- If a voluntary experience that has cost a lot of effort turns out badly, the dissonance is reduced by redefining the experience as interesting.
Components of the equity theory of motivation
Firstly, Festinger integrated various concepts, including attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, value and behaviours, which had been considered separately as a single construct of cognition. This treatment made it possible for scholars to understand the psychological process as a whole. Secondly, Festinger viewed people’s mental states in a social environment from an intellectual tradition, which was influenced by Kurt Lewin, rather than a Gestalt tradition as Heider did (Cooper, 2007). This intellectual tradition proposed that people navigated the world by motivational pushes and pulls, and therefore our behaviours were driven by psychological forces.
Research has shown that when an individual engages in behaviors that are inconsistent with their attitude or belief (e.g., arguing a counter-attitudinal position on a topic), a change in attitude is produced that is consistent in the direction of his or her behavior. This mechanism of thought or attitude change is the same mechanism used to produce changes in negative, irrational thoughts that are involved in the maintenance of depression and related disorders. When there is a high level of trust between parties, perceived inequities may be more easily overlooked or forgiven. Conversely, in an environment lacking trust, even minor discrepancies in inputs and outputs can lead to feelings of injustice and resentment. Cognitive dissonance, a psychological phenomenon first identified by Leon Festinger in 1957, refers to the discomfort we experience when we hold two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes simultaneously.
Social Psychology, Theories of
This model proposed that the psychological stress was caused by the feeling of being self-responsible for inducing aversive consequences, rather than the inconsistency in cognitive elements. In conclusion, the Equity Theory is a powerful framework that illuminates how individuals perceive and respond to fairness in relationships. With its applications in the workplace, psychology, and beyond, this theory offers valuable insights into human behavior and motivation. By understanding the core concepts, exploring its psychological underpinnings, acknowledging criticisms and limitations, and applying it in real-life contexts, we can harness the power of equity to create more harmonious and fulfilling experiences both personally and professionally. Although both van Veen et al. (2009) and Izuma et al. (2010) commonly found pMFC activation in response to cognitive dissonance, the two studies report somewhat different activations in other areas. Notably, van Veen found reliable anterior insula activations, but relatively small DPLFC activations.
As people learn by doing, they are socially influenced by self-consistency and commitment, according to another of Cialdini’s compliance principles. The Zajonc mere exposure theory describes people favoring people and objects encountered frequently. Similarly, people are attracted to people in propinquity (close proximity) (Festinger, Schachter, and Back), perhaps because of exposure. Although explained in non-cognitive terms, familiarity effects fit the principle of liking those who seem comfortable, safe, and easily understood.
Understanding all inconsistency compensation as a palliative response to violated expectations
- Secondly, Festinger viewed people’s mental states in a social environment from an intellectual tradition, which was influenced by Kurt Lewin, rather than a Gestalt tradition as Heider did (Cooper, 2007).
- The expert counselors produced greater change on an immediate assessment and an assessment taken one week later.
- And at Walden, an accredited university, you can pursue your BS in Psychology online while you continue to work full time.
- The affected partner may feel betrayed or misunderstood, leading to a decline in emotional closeness.
- However, the countries with a collectivist culture can also vary by the degree of distributive fairness perception, as suggested by a study exploring comparison strategies and the evaluation of rewards/inputs by employees in China, Japan and South Korea (Kim, Edwards & Shapiro, 2015).
The perception of fairness and equity can vary across cultures and societies, making it challenging to generalize the theory’s findings universally. Factors such as cultural values, social norms, and individualistic versus collectivistic orientations can significantly influence equity perceptions and responses. This theory details the cognitive processes people employ to gauge whether the distribution of rewards and penalties in a relationship is equitable. It was incorporated into Equity Theory based on earlier evidence which revealed that employees tend to perceive a distribution of rewards as unfair if they find that their contributions surpass those of their peers within the same organisational division. In any managerial role, understanding what drives employee motivation is crucial for success.
